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The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) produces images by probing the specimen with a focused electron beam that is scanned across a rectangular area of the specimen (raster scanning).

There are two families of electron guns:

• Conventional thermionic emitters such as Tungsten (W) or Lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) tipped filaments.
• Tungsten field emission gun (FEG) , warm or Cold FEG. A pointed emitter is held at several kilovolts (2000-7000 V) so that there is sufficient potential at the emitter surface to cause field electron emission.

Field emission gun (FEG) is used to produce an electron beam that is smaller in diameter, more coherent and up to three orders of magnitude greater current density or brightness.

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Energy of electrons is depending of Voltage: 1 Kev to 50KeV

Current (A): Number of electrons /unit of time

1 amp = 1 coulomb/sec 1 coulomb ~ 6 x10¹⁸ electrons

Example if the current measured at sample is around 10^-9A to 10^-12 A then the number of electrons is around 6X10⁶ to 6X10⁹ electrons/sec.

Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM)

ESEM is a variety of SEM called environmental scanning electron microscope. It can produce images of sufficient quality and resolution with the samples being wet or contained in low vacuum or gas. This greatly facilitates imaging biological samples that are unstable in the high vacuum of conventional electron microscopes. The major disadvantage of transmission electron microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens, typically about 100 nanometers. Biological specimens are typically required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require special treatment with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast.

ESEM is especially useful for non-metallic, uncoated and biological materials. The presence of gas, mainly Argon, around a sample permits to work with pressure greater than 500 Pa compared to conventional SEM requirements samples under vacuum about 10-3 to 10-4 Pa. This vacuum level creates the possibility to operate on non-conductive samples without any preparation or hydrated specimens without charging.

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

In a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), the electron beam is accelerated by an anode typically at +100 keV (40 to 400 keV) with respect to the cathode, focused by electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses, and transmitted through the specimen that is in part transparent to electrons and in part scatters them out of the beam. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the objective lens system of the microscope.

The spatial variation in this information (the “image”) may be viewed by projecting the magnified electron image onto a fluorescent viewing screen coated with a phosphor or scintillator material such as zinc sulfide. Alternatively, the image can be photographically recorded by exposing a photographic film or plate directly to the electron beam, or a high-resolution phosphor may be coupled by means of a lens optical system or a fiber optic light-guide to the sensor of a digital camera. The image detected by the digital camera may be displayed on a monitor or computer.

A transmission electron microscope can achieve better than 50 pm resolution and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000x whereas most light microscopes are limited by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below 2000x. Generally, the image resolution of an SEM is at least an order of magnitude poorer than that of a TEM. However, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than transmission, it is able to image bulk samples up to many centimeters in size and (depending on instrument design and settings) has a great depth of field, and so can produce images that are good representations of the three dimensional shape of the sample.

The Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) rasters a focused incident probe across a specimen that (as with the TEM) has been thinned to facilitate detection of electrons scattered through the specimen. The high resolution of the TEM is thus possible in STEM. The focusing action (and aberrations) occurs before the electrons hit the specimen in the STEM, but afterward in the TEM.

Focused ion beam (FIB)

Focused ion beam, also known as FIB, is a technique used particularly in the semiconductor industry, materials science and increasingly in the biological field for site-specific analysis, deposition, and ablation of materials. A FIB setup is a scientific instrument that resembles a scanning electron microscope (SEM). However, while the SEM uses a focused beam of electrons to image the sample in the chamber, a FIB setup uses a focused beam of ions instead. Unlike an electron microscope, FIB is inherently destructive to the specimen.

When the high-energy gallium ions strike the sample, they will sputter atoms from the surface. Gallium atoms will also be implanted into the top few nanometers of the surface, and the surface will be made amorphous. A FIB-SEM consists in a system with both electron and ion beam columns, allowing the same feature to be investigated using either of the beams. A FIB-SEM system uses a beam of Ga+ ion to mill into the surface to locate a feature or defect of interest. The integrated SEM then uses a focused beam of electrons to image the sample in the chamber.

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Interaction of an electron beam with a sample target produces a variety of emissions, including x-rays. An energy-dispersive (EDS) detector is used to separate the characteristic x-rays of different elements into an energy spectrum, and EDS system software is used to analyze the energy spectrum in order to determine the abundance of specific elements. EDS can be used to find the chemical composition of materials down to a spot size of a few microns, and to create element composition maps over a much broader raster area. Together, these capabilities provide fundamental compositional information for a wide variety of materials.

How it Works – EDS

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EDS systems are typically integrated into either an SEM or EPMA instrument. EDS systems include a sensitive x-ray detector, a liquid nitrogen dewar for cooling, and software to collect and analyze energy spectra. The detector is mounted in the sample chamber of the main instrument at the end of a long arm, which is itself cooled by liquid nitrogen. The most common detectors are made of Si(Li) crystals that operate at low voltages to improve sensitivity, but recent advances in detector technology make availabale so-called “silicon drift detectors” that operate at higher count rates without liquid nitrogen cooling.

An EDS detector contains a crystal that absorbs the energy of incoming x-rays by ionization, yielding free electrons in the crystal that become conductive and produce an electrical charge bias. The x-ray absorption thus converts the energy of individual x-rays into electrical voltages of proportional size; the electrical pulses correspond to the characteristic x-rays of the element.

Strengths

• When used in “spot” mode, a user can acquire a full elemental spectrum in only a few seconds. Supporting software makes it possible to readily identify peaks, which makes EDS a great survey tool to quickly identify unknown phases prior to quantitative analysis.
• EDS can be used in semi-quantitative mode to determine chemical composition by peak-height ratio relative to a standard.

Limitations

• There are energy peak overlaps among different elements, particularly those corresponding to x-rays generated by emission from different energy-level shells (K, L and M) in different elements. For example, there are close overlaps of Mn-K_α and Cr-K_β, or Ti-K_α and various L lines in Ba. Particularly at higher energies, individual peaks may correspond to several different elements; in this case, the user can apply deconvolution methods to try peak separation, or simply consider which elements make “most sense” given the known context of the sample.
• Because the wavelength-dispersive (WDS) method is more precise and capable of detecting lower elemental abundances, EDS is less commonly used for actual chemical analysis although improvements in detector resolution make EDS a reliable and precise alternative.
• EDS cannot detect the lightest elements, typically below the atomic number of Na for detectors equipped with a Be window. Polymer-based thin windows allow for detection of light elements, depending on the instrument and operating conditions.

Results

A typical EDS spectrum is portrayed as a plot of x-ray counts vs. energy (in keV). Energy peaks correspond to the various elements in the sample. Generally they are narrow and readily resolved, but many elements yield multiple peaks. For example, iron commonly shows strong K_α and K_βpeaks. Elements in low abundance will generate x-ray peaks that may not be resolvable from the background radiation.

EDS spectrum of multi-element glass (NIST K309) containing O, Al, Si, Ca, Ba and Fe (Goldstein et al., 2003). Details

EDS spectrum of biotite, containing detectable Mg, Al, Si, K, Ti and Fe (from Goodge, 2003). Details

References

• Severin, Kenneth P., 2004, Energy Dispersive Spectrometry of Common Rock Forming Minerals. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 225 p.–Highly recommended reference book of representative EDS spectra of the rock-forming minerals, as well as practical tips for spectral acquisition and interpretation.
• Goldstein, J. (2003) Scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Kluwer Adacemic/Plenum Pulbishers, 689 p.
• Reimer, L. (1998) Scanning electron microscopy : physics of image formation and microanalysis. Springer, 527 p.
• Egerton, R. F. (2005) Physical principles of electron microscopy : an introduction to TEM, SEM, and AEM. Springer, 202.
• Clarke, A. R. (2002) Microscopy techniques for materials science. CRC Press (electronic resource)

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To satisfy this curiosity, many inventions have been devised. One of them is the optical microscope. The human eye can distinguish objects down to about 0.2 mm. Optical microscopes reveal small objects, which would be otherwise invisible to the human eye, by magnifying them with the help of a combination of glass lenses. If we raise the amplification rate (magnification) of an optical microscope higher and higher, can we see an atom?

Electron microscopes enable clear observation of micro-structures, which is not possible with optical microscopes. Moreover, they also make it possible to analyze substance structures and obtain atomic level information by using an electron beam. The electron microscope is an epoch-making invention used throughout the world to investigate an atomic world that we could hardly imagine.

The difference between Electron Beam and Light

fig1. Ripples caused by the difference in the magnitude of the wave

As explained above, the ability to distinguish a small structure, that is resolution, largely depends on the wavelength of the “wave” used to illuminate the specimen.

The nature of this “wave” may be easily understood by comparing it to the wave pattern arising when a small stone is thrown into a lake. Assume the waves on the water surface come into contact with a rock protruding above the surface. If the rock is larger than the length between the crests of the waves (wavelength), then the wave pattern does not continue behind the rock (Fig,1). This creates a shadow. If the rock is smaller than the wavelength, however, the wave pattern will not be interrupted behind the rock and there is no shadow. In this case, the existence of the rock cannot be detected.

Whereas the wavelength of visible light is 400 to 800 nm (1 nanometer is one 100,000th of 0.1mm), the wavelength of the electron beam, which is used as a light source in the electron microscope, varies depending on the accelerating voltage. The accelerating voltages commonly used are 100 to 200 kV (corresponding to wavelengths of 0.0037nm to 0.0025nm).

This wavelength is far shorter than that of light, and sufficient to distinguish the arrangements of atoms (several nanometers). For the optical microscope the combination of the lens is varied to alter the magnification. In contrast, for the electron microscope, the intensity of the electric current passed to the electromagnets is varied to change the intensity of the magnetic field. This corresponds to the changing the thickness of a convex lens. In fact, by manipulating the electric current, the magnification can be freely controlled.

Another characteristic “electron diffraction”

TEMs employ a high voltage electron beam in order to create an image. An electron gun at the top of a TEM emits electrons that travel through the microscope’s vacuum tube. Rather than having a glass lens focusing the light (as in the case of light microscopes), the TEM employs an electromagnetic lens which focuses the electrons into a very fine beam. This beam then passes through the specimen, which is very thin, and the electrons either scatter or hit a fluorescent screen at the bottom of the microscope. An image of the specimen with its assorted parts shown in different shades according to its density appears on the screen. This image can be then studied directly within the TEM or photographed.  Figure 1 shows a diagram of a TEM and its basic parts. 

Fig. 1 Simplified diagram of a transmission electron microscope.  Drawing by Graham Colm, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

What Are the Differences Between a TEM and a Light Microscope?

Although TEMs and light microscopes operate on the same basic principles, there are several differences between the two. The main difference is that TEMs use electrons rather than light in order to magnify images. The power of the light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light and can magnify something up to 2,000 times. Electron microscopes, on the other hand, can produce much more highly magnified images because the beam of electrons has a smaller wavelength which creates images of higher resolution. (Resolution is the degree of sharpness of an image.) Figure 2 compares the magnification of a light microscope to that of a TEM. 

Fig. 2 [left] Cotton stem; area in the circle is the phloem tissue. Light microscope x250. Photo by K. Esau.  [right] Enlarged image of cotton phloem tissue showing a sieve element (top cell) and a companion cell (bottom cell), TEM x8,000. Photo by J. Thorsch.

How Are TEM Specimens Prepared?

Specimens must be very thin so that electrons are able to pass through the tissue. This may be done by cutting very thin slices of a specimen’s tissue using an ultramicrotome.  The tissue must first be put in a chemical solution to preserve the cell structure.  The tissue must also be completely dehydrated (all water removed). 

                                 Fig. 3 Ultramicrotome.  Photo by J. Thorsch.                                                             Fig. 4 Microtome grid.  Image by Laurie Hannah

Once preserved and dehydrated, tissue samples are placed in hard, clean plastic.  The plastic supports the tissue while it is being thinly cut with the ultramicrotome (Fig. 3).

After sections are cut and mounted on grids, (tiny circular disks with openings,) a solution of lead is used to stain the tissue (Fig. 4).  The lead provides contrast to the tissue by staining certain cell parts.  When placed in the electron microscope, the electrons are scattered by the lead.  They do not penetrate the tissue or hit the fluorescent screen, leaving those areas dark. 

Esau’s Work With the TEM

Esau started using the TEM in her research in the early 1960s.  When she moved to UC Santa Barbara in 1963, the campus purchased a Siemens electron microscope for her. She then received a grant from the National Science Foundation in 1969 for another new microscope which she used for the remainder of her career in Santa Barbara. The TEM significantly improved her understanding of the relationship between plants and viruses. Electron microscopy also aided in clarifying the functioning of sieve elements, the food conducting cells in plants. Without the TEM, much of this research would not have been possible.